Financial Instruments
We have discussed financial system and financial institutions, now shall move on to financial instruments. Financial instruments are the vehicles by which financial markets channel funds from savers to borrowers and provide returns to savers. We shall discuss major instruments or securities, traded in the financial system. For convenience, we analyze money market and capital market instruments separately. Both money market and capital market assets are actively traded in financial markets.
Money Market Instruments
The short maturity of money market assets doesn't allow much time for their returns to vary. Therefore these instruments are safe investments for short-term surplus funds of households and firms. However, ill making investment decisions, savers must still consider the possibility of default—the chance that the borrower will be unable to repay the entire amount borrowed plus interest at maturity.
Government Treasury Bills
Government Treasury securities are short-term debt obligations of the government. They are also the most liquid money market instrument because they have the largest trading volume. The federal government can raise taxes and issue currency to repay the amount borrowed, so there is virtually no risk of default. Treasury securities with maturities of less than one year are called Treasury bills (T-bills). Although individuals can hold them, the largest holders of T-bills are commercial banks, followed by other financial intermediaries, businesses, and foreign investors.
Bill of exchange and other Commercial Papers
Commercial paper provides a liquid, short-term investment for savers and a source of funds for corporations. High-quality, well-known firms and financial institutions use commercial paper to raise funds. Because these borrowers are generally the most creditworthy, the default risk is small, but the interest rate is higher than that on Treasury bills. The growth in the commercial paper market during the past two decades is part of a shift by many corporations toward direct finance (and away from bank loans).
Bill of exchange Defined and Explained
It is an important form of a negotiable instrument and has been defined in section 5 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 the said definition is reproduced below:
“A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by maker, directing a certain person, to pay on demand or at fixed or determinable future time a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument”.
The following are the ingredients of a bill of exchange:
A promise or order to pay is not “conditional, within the meaning of this section and section 4, by reason of the time for payment of the amount or any installment thereof being expressed to be on the lapse of a certain period after the occurrence of a specified event which, according to the ordinary expectation of mankind, is certain to happen, although the time of its happening may be uncertain.
The sum payable may be “certain” within the meaning of this section and section 4, although it includes future interest or return in any other form or is payable at an indicated rate of exchange, or is payable at the current rate of exchange and although it is to be paid in stated installments and contains a provision that on default of payment of one or more installments or interest. Or return in any other form the whole or the unpaid balance shall become due.
A promise order to pay is not ‘conditional’ nor is the sum payable uncertain within the meaning of this section or section 4 by reason of the sum payable being subject to adjustment for profit or loss, as the case may be of the business of the maker.
Where the person intended can reasonably be ascertained from the promissory note or the bill of exchange; he is a ‘certain person’ within the meaning of this section and section 4, although he is misnamed or designated by description only.
An order to pay out of a particular fund is not unconditional within the meaning of this section; but an unqualified order to pay, coupled with—
Bankers' Acceptances
These instruments are designed to facilitate international trade, bankers' acceptances are instruments that establish credit between parties who do not know each other. A banker's acceptance is a check like promise that the bank will pay the amount of funds indicated to the recipient. It is issued by a firm (usually an importer) and is payable on a date indicated. The bank that marks the draft "accepted" guarantees the payment to the recipient (usually an exporter or its representing bank). The issuing firm is required to deposit funds in the bank sufficient to cover the draft; if it does not do so, the bank is still obligated to make good on the draft. The bank's good name is likely to enable an importer to buy goods from an overseas exporter that lacks knowledge about whether the importer will be able to pay. In recent years, acceptances have generally been resold in Secondary markets and held by other banks, households, and businesses.
Repurchase Agreements,
Repurchase agreements, also known as repos or RPs, are used for cash management by large corporations. They are very short-term ' loans, typically with maturities of less than two weeks. In many cases, a firm gives money as loan to a bank overnight. For example, if a large company has idle cash, it purchases T-bills from a bank that agrees to buy them back the next morning at a higher price, reflecting the accumulated interest. The T-bills serve as collateral; that is, if the borrower defaults, the, lender receives the T-bills.
Federal (Fed) Funds (in U.S Perspective)
Federal funds instruments represent overnight loans between banks of their deposits with the Federal Reserve System (the U.S. central bank). Banking regulations require that banks deposit a percentage of their deposits as reserves with the Fed. If a bank is temporarily low on reserves, it can borrow funds from another bank that has reserves greater than the required level. The federal funds market reflects the credit needs of commercial banks, so money market analysts watch the federal funds rate (the interest rate \charged on these overnight loans) closely. When it is high, banks need additional funds; when it is low, banks have low credit needs
Eurodollars
Eurodollars are U.S. dollars deposited in foreign branches of U.S. banks or in foreign banks outside the United States (not necessarily in Europe). Rather than being converted into the currency of the foreign country, the deposits remain denominated in dollars. U.S. banks can then borrow these funds. Eurodollar funds raised abroad have become an important source of funds for U.S. banks.
Negotiable Bank Certificates of Deposit
A certificate of deposit (CD) is a fixed-maturity instrument sold by a bank to depositors; it pays principal and interest to the certificate holders. This is an American terminology for terms deposits.
Capital Market Instruments
Since capital market instruments have longer maturities than money market instruments, they are subject to greater fluctuations in their returns. For this reason, borrowers who seek to use funds for a long period of time and savers with long investment horizons invest in them. All capital market debt instruments contain some risk of default; however, since government securities are backed by sovereign undertaking hence carry little risk.
Government Treasury Securities
Securities and bonds are issued by the government to finance budget deficits such as Federal Investment Bonds issued by Govt. of Pakistan with maturity of 5 to 10 years. These are traded through Stock Exchange, hence liquidity is ensured.
U.S. Government Agency Securities (In U.S Perspective)
U.S. government agency securities are intermediate-term or long-term bonds issued by the federal government or government-sponsored agencies. For example, the Farm Credit System issue bonds to raise money to finance agricultural activities, and the Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA) issues bonds to finance home mort gages. Many such securities are officially guaranteed by the government (with a pledge of the government's "full faith and credit"); others, are implicitly guaranteed, so the default risk is still low.
State and Local Government Bonds issued in United States
State and local government bonds (often called municipal bonds) are intermediate-term or long-term bonds issued by municipalities and state governments. These governmental units use the fund borrowed to build schools, roads, and other large capital projects. The bond are exempt from federal income taxation (and also income taxation by the issuing state). These bonds are often held by high-tax-bracket house- holds, commercial banks, and life insurance companies.
Stocks
Stocks are issued as equity claims by corporations and represent the largest single category of capital market assets.
Corporate Bonds
Corporate bonds are intermediate-term and long-term obligations issued by large, high-quality corporations to finance plant and equipment spending. Typically, corporate bonds pay interest twice a year and repay the principal amount borrowed at maturity. There are many variations, however. Convertible bonds, for example, allow the holder to convert the debt into equity (for a specified number of shares). By using such variations, firms can sometimes lower their borrowing costs by giving bond buyers an extra return if the firm does exceptionally well. Corporate bonds are not as liquid as government securities because they are less widely traded. Corporate bonds have greater default risk than government bonds, but they generally fluctuate less in price than corporate equities.
Although the corporate bond market is smaller than the stock market in the United States, it is more important for raising funds because corporations issue new shares infrequently. Most funds raised through financial markets take-the form of corporate bonds. Investors in corporate bonds are a diverse group, including households, life insurance companies, and pension funds.
Mortgages
Mortgages are loans (usually long-term) to households or businesses to purchase buildings or land, with the underlying asset (house, plant, or piece of land) serving as collateral. Residential mortgages are issued by commercial banks. Mortgage loans for industrial and agricultural borrowers are made by life insurance companies and commercial banks.
Commercial Bank Loans
Commercial bank loans include loans to businesses and consumers made by banks and finance companies. Secondary markets for commercial bank loans are not as well developed as those for other capital market instruments, so loans are less liquid than mortgages.
WAPDA Bond
It is an instrument of capital market in Pakistan. It serves as source of funds to this institution
Bonds in general are issued as equity claims on corporations and represent largest single category of capital market assets.
Debentures: (Corporate Bonds) --- Global Perspective
Through debentures intermediate-term and long-term loans are raised by the company of strong credit rating.
An Overview of Banking Laws & Practices
There are different laws/ statutes promulgated by the legislature. There are also laws/ statutes relating to banks and banking business. Some of the statutes relating to banking and other fields are stated below for reference purposes:
A banking practice refers to’ normal banking practice’ carried on over a long period of time. Such normal banking practices carry the sanctity of law and courts do recognize such practices while deciding cases. Banking practices are complimentary to law not contradictory to law.
Some of Banking Practices
Secrecy concerning customer’s affairs:
A banker is required to maintain secrecy of its customers account however under special circumstances; banker may produce statement of account under some statutory requirements to a court of law or to authorized persons/ department.
Exchange of inter-bank credit reports is one of the global banking practices.
Banker’s Right of Set-Off:
Law entitles banks to set—off its claims from customer credit balances. However, courts have formulated rules, which require business norms to be followed as well.
Safe-Custody Services (Lockers Facility)
This relationship is governed by the law of bailment. (Legal relationship of Bailer and Bailee is established between the customer and the banker while availing lockers facility). Courts while adjudicating cases also pay due consideration to normal banking practices.
Banking Practice of Closing a Customer’s Account under Following Circumstances:
From the above discussion, we can conclude that in banking statutory provisions and banking practices move side by side. It is important to understand that banking practices are complimentary to law these are in no case contradictory to law. Law shall always prevail over practices.
We have discussed financial system and financial institutions, now shall move on to financial instruments. Financial instruments are the vehicles by which financial markets channel funds from savers to borrowers and provide returns to savers. We shall discuss major instruments or securities, traded in the financial system. For convenience, we analyze money market and capital market instruments separately. Both money market and capital market assets are actively traded in financial markets.
Money Market Instruments
The short maturity of money market assets doesn't allow much time for their returns to vary. Therefore these instruments are safe investments for short-term surplus funds of households and firms. However, ill making investment decisions, savers must still consider the possibility of default—the chance that the borrower will be unable to repay the entire amount borrowed plus interest at maturity.
Government Treasury Bills
Government Treasury securities are short-term debt obligations of the government. They are also the most liquid money market instrument because they have the largest trading volume. The federal government can raise taxes and issue currency to repay the amount borrowed, so there is virtually no risk of default. Treasury securities with maturities of less than one year are called Treasury bills (T-bills). Although individuals can hold them, the largest holders of T-bills are commercial banks, followed by other financial intermediaries, businesses, and foreign investors.
Bill of exchange and other Commercial Papers
Commercial paper provides a liquid, short-term investment for savers and a source of funds for corporations. High-quality, well-known firms and financial institutions use commercial paper to raise funds. Because these borrowers are generally the most creditworthy, the default risk is small, but the interest rate is higher than that on Treasury bills. The growth in the commercial paper market during the past two decades is part of a shift by many corporations toward direct finance (and away from bank loans).
Bill of exchange Defined and Explained
It is an important form of a negotiable instrument and has been defined in section 5 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 the said definition is reproduced below:
“A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by maker, directing a certain person, to pay on demand or at fixed or determinable future time a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument”.
The following are the ingredients of a bill of exchange:
- It must in writing
- It must contain an order to pay and addressed to some person
- The order must be unconditional
- The order must be signed by the maker
- The order must direct to pay or demand or at a fixed or determinable future time.
- The sum ordered to be rapid must be certain.
- The payment should be ordered to be paid to a certain person, or to his order, or to the bearer.
A promise or order to pay is not “conditional, within the meaning of this section and section 4, by reason of the time for payment of the amount or any installment thereof being expressed to be on the lapse of a certain period after the occurrence of a specified event which, according to the ordinary expectation of mankind, is certain to happen, although the time of its happening may be uncertain.
The sum payable may be “certain” within the meaning of this section and section 4, although it includes future interest or return in any other form or is payable at an indicated rate of exchange, or is payable at the current rate of exchange and although it is to be paid in stated installments and contains a provision that on default of payment of one or more installments or interest. Or return in any other form the whole or the unpaid balance shall become due.
A promise order to pay is not ‘conditional’ nor is the sum payable uncertain within the meaning of this section or section 4 by reason of the sum payable being subject to adjustment for profit or loss, as the case may be of the business of the maker.
Where the person intended can reasonably be ascertained from the promissory note or the bill of exchange; he is a ‘certain person’ within the meaning of this section and section 4, although he is misnamed or designated by description only.
An order to pay out of a particular fund is not unconditional within the meaning of this section; but an unqualified order to pay, coupled with—
- an indication of a particular fund out of which the drawee is to reimburse himself or a particular account to be debited to the amoun, or \
- a statement of the transaction which gives rise to the note of bil, in unconditional
Bankers' Acceptances
These instruments are designed to facilitate international trade, bankers' acceptances are instruments that establish credit between parties who do not know each other. A banker's acceptance is a check like promise that the bank will pay the amount of funds indicated to the recipient. It is issued by a firm (usually an importer) and is payable on a date indicated. The bank that marks the draft "accepted" guarantees the payment to the recipient (usually an exporter or its representing bank). The issuing firm is required to deposit funds in the bank sufficient to cover the draft; if it does not do so, the bank is still obligated to make good on the draft. The bank's good name is likely to enable an importer to buy goods from an overseas exporter that lacks knowledge about whether the importer will be able to pay. In recent years, acceptances have generally been resold in Secondary markets and held by other banks, households, and businesses.
Repurchase Agreements,
Repurchase agreements, also known as repos or RPs, are used for cash management by large corporations. They are very short-term ' loans, typically with maturities of less than two weeks. In many cases, a firm gives money as loan to a bank overnight. For example, if a large company has idle cash, it purchases T-bills from a bank that agrees to buy them back the next morning at a higher price, reflecting the accumulated interest. The T-bills serve as collateral; that is, if the borrower defaults, the, lender receives the T-bills.
Federal (Fed) Funds (in U.S Perspective)
Federal funds instruments represent overnight loans between banks of their deposits with the Federal Reserve System (the U.S. central bank). Banking regulations require that banks deposit a percentage of their deposits as reserves with the Fed. If a bank is temporarily low on reserves, it can borrow funds from another bank that has reserves greater than the required level. The federal funds market reflects the credit needs of commercial banks, so money market analysts watch the federal funds rate (the interest rate \charged on these overnight loans) closely. When it is high, banks need additional funds; when it is low, banks have low credit needs
Eurodollars
Eurodollars are U.S. dollars deposited in foreign branches of U.S. banks or in foreign banks outside the United States (not necessarily in Europe). Rather than being converted into the currency of the foreign country, the deposits remain denominated in dollars. U.S. banks can then borrow these funds. Eurodollar funds raised abroad have become an important source of funds for U.S. banks.
Negotiable Bank Certificates of Deposit
A certificate of deposit (CD) is a fixed-maturity instrument sold by a bank to depositors; it pays principal and interest to the certificate holders. This is an American terminology for terms deposits.
Capital Market Instruments
Since capital market instruments have longer maturities than money market instruments, they are subject to greater fluctuations in their returns. For this reason, borrowers who seek to use funds for a long period of time and savers with long investment horizons invest in them. All capital market debt instruments contain some risk of default; however, since government securities are backed by sovereign undertaking hence carry little risk.
Government Treasury Securities
Securities and bonds are issued by the government to finance budget deficits such as Federal Investment Bonds issued by Govt. of Pakistan with maturity of 5 to 10 years. These are traded through Stock Exchange, hence liquidity is ensured.
U.S. Government Agency Securities (In U.S Perspective)
U.S. government agency securities are intermediate-term or long-term bonds issued by the federal government or government-sponsored agencies. For example, the Farm Credit System issue bonds to raise money to finance agricultural activities, and the Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA) issues bonds to finance home mort gages. Many such securities are officially guaranteed by the government (with a pledge of the government's "full faith and credit"); others, are implicitly guaranteed, so the default risk is still low.
State and Local Government Bonds issued in United States
State and local government bonds (often called municipal bonds) are intermediate-term or long-term bonds issued by municipalities and state governments. These governmental units use the fund borrowed to build schools, roads, and other large capital projects. The bond are exempt from federal income taxation (and also income taxation by the issuing state). These bonds are often held by high-tax-bracket house- holds, commercial banks, and life insurance companies.
Stocks
Stocks are issued as equity claims by corporations and represent the largest single category of capital market assets.
Corporate Bonds
Corporate bonds are intermediate-term and long-term obligations issued by large, high-quality corporations to finance plant and equipment spending. Typically, corporate bonds pay interest twice a year and repay the principal amount borrowed at maturity. There are many variations, however. Convertible bonds, for example, allow the holder to convert the debt into equity (for a specified number of shares). By using such variations, firms can sometimes lower their borrowing costs by giving bond buyers an extra return if the firm does exceptionally well. Corporate bonds are not as liquid as government securities because they are less widely traded. Corporate bonds have greater default risk than government bonds, but they generally fluctuate less in price than corporate equities.
Although the corporate bond market is smaller than the stock market in the United States, it is more important for raising funds because corporations issue new shares infrequently. Most funds raised through financial markets take-the form of corporate bonds. Investors in corporate bonds are a diverse group, including households, life insurance companies, and pension funds.
Mortgages
Mortgages are loans (usually long-term) to households or businesses to purchase buildings or land, with the underlying asset (house, plant, or piece of land) serving as collateral. Residential mortgages are issued by commercial banks. Mortgage loans for industrial and agricultural borrowers are made by life insurance companies and commercial banks.
Commercial Bank Loans
Commercial bank loans include loans to businesses and consumers made by banks and finance companies. Secondary markets for commercial bank loans are not as well developed as those for other capital market instruments, so loans are less liquid than mortgages.
WAPDA Bond
It is an instrument of capital market in Pakistan. It serves as source of funds to this institution
Bonds in general are issued as equity claims on corporations and represent largest single category of capital market assets.
Debentures: (Corporate Bonds) --- Global Perspective
Through debentures intermediate-term and long-term loans are raised by the company of strong credit rating.
An Overview of Banking Laws & Practices
There are different laws/ statutes promulgated by the legislature. There are also laws/ statutes relating to banks and banking business. Some of the statutes relating to banking and other fields are stated below for reference purposes:
- Banking Companies Ordinance
- Negotiable Instrument Act
- Limitation Act
- Arbitration Act
- Criminal Procedure Code. (CrPC)
- Civil Procedure Code (CPC)
- Contract Act.
- Sales Tax Act
A banking practice refers to’ normal banking practice’ carried on over a long period of time. Such normal banking practices carry the sanctity of law and courts do recognize such practices while deciding cases. Banking practices are complimentary to law not contradictory to law.
Some of Banking Practices
Secrecy concerning customer’s affairs:
A banker is required to maintain secrecy of its customers account however under special circumstances; banker may produce statement of account under some statutory requirements to a court of law or to authorized persons/ department.
Exchange of inter-bank credit reports is one of the global banking practices.
Banker’s Right of Set-Off:
Law entitles banks to set—off its claims from customer credit balances. However, courts have formulated rules, which require business norms to be followed as well.
Safe-Custody Services (Lockers Facility)
This relationship is governed by the law of bailment. (Legal relationship of Bailer and Bailee is established between the customer and the banker while availing lockers facility). Courts while adjudicating cases also pay due consideration to normal banking practices.
Banking Practice of Closing a Customer’s Account under Following Circumstances:
- Frequently drawing cheques without sufficient balance in the drawer’s account.
- Depositing cheques for collection which are frequently returned uncollected.
- Issue cheques and then issue stop-payment instruction to the bank.
From the above discussion, we can conclude that in banking statutory provisions and banking practices move side by side. It is important to understand that banking practices are complimentary to law these are in no case contradictory to law. Law shall always prevail over practices.
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