Concept & Types of Organizations with Reference to the Behavioral Theory
People function in society as individuals and in organized groups, such as family, clan, school, community, professional associations, trade unions, etc.
Organization, according to one of the meanings given in the Oxford Dictionary, is an organized body of people; an organized system.
Just like an organism (a living being, an individual animal or plant), it is an individual entity functioning as a unit. Examples: Telikom, Microsoft, Netscape, The National, Pepsi, Coca-Cola, the Government, the military, the air force, the navy, etc.
Just like an organ (a distinct part of an animal or plant body, adapted for a particular function, i.e., digestive organs) in the larger body of human society, every organization carries out a specific function - be it educational, business, government or religious. To make our analogy more vivid, individuals are like single cells in the body of human society, whereas organizations are like organs with their specific functions.
The Behavioral Theory identifies four levels of communication in the human society, or four main types of communication networks:
Communication in Business Organizations
Business organizations are established to achieve a specific purpose, such as the production of some goods or services. Effective communication is vital for the coordinated functioning of any organization.
There are the two main contexts in which organizational communication may be viewed: internal and external communication.
Internal communication involves all communication networks within the organization, i.e. between the various levels of the hierarchy, departments, branches, or individuals.
The main internal communication channels include:
The channels of external communication include the mass media, advertising, letters, company reports, open days, local/community participation, sponsorship, trade fairs and exhibitions, conferences, etc.
Internal communication in all organizations has formal and informal channels of communication.
Levels of Business Communication: There are four levels of communication in organizations:
The major functions of communication in a business organization include communication for
We know how complex the process of communication is between two parties (See Lecture 1). The complexity of internal communication systems and information flow increases with the growth of the administrative and clerical functions and the size of organizations. In a small organization with perhaps only 6 or 7 staff, all in one room, communication is simple and straightforward, with people talking face to face to one another. There is no need to send innumerable memos or use the telephone.
As soon as the organization expands, so does the communication system. More written communication is needed, more specialized information is needed, even the same information will need to be communicated in different ways to different groups.
Advances in telecommunications technology have significantly expanded our options for communicating, but they have not solved the communication problem at work. It has always been difficult to get the right information to the right people at the right time - and it still is. In fact, one can make a persuasive case that the rate of change and the rapid growth of information are making this age-old challenge more difficult than ever.
In view of the large volume and increased complexity of communication within organizations, the need arises to effectively select, control, and direct the flow of vital information.
This is achieved with the help of formal organizational structure.
Organizational Structure & Lines of Communication
Business organizations consist of people who work together to achieve common goals (at least in theory! :). Organizations are the system by which individuals cooperate, so that there can be specialization of functions and skills for greater efficiency. This specialization of functions forms the basis of organizational structure. All organizations, as we know, have formal and informal structure.
The formal structure is deliberately developed to regulate and direct the flow of information and to control other aspects of organizational hierarchy and set-up. In order to select, restrict, direct, and control the flow of communication within the formal organization structure, the traditional organizations employ the sequential model of communication that emphasizes up and down hierarchal communication. Most frequently we designate communication to superiors as upward/vertical communication, messages to subordinates as downward/vertical communication, and communication to those on our level as lateral/horizontal communication. Diagonal communication occurs when there is communication between lower and higher levels of hierarchy, but both in different lines of authority (for example, between senior members of academic staff and junior Bursary officers, etc.). Most traditional organizations also have a policy of communication (protocol) dictating the etiquette (formal standards/rules of correct and polite behavior within the organization) designed to ensure effective communication within the organization.
Informal structures/networks, based on personal relationships, will not appear on any organization chart, but can have as much or more impact on the functioning of the organization as the formal communication system.
For example, here are some of the positive aspects of the informal network:
Classification of Organizational Structures: Despite the wide diversity of organizational structures, we can classify them according to the following criteria:
Complexity: Organizational structures may be tall or flat, depending on the number of levels of management.
Tall structures are typical of large public sector corporations; they are also still found in some large companies. Tall structures are put in place when the management wants to centralize all decision-making and retain control over the whole of the organization.
Flat structures exist in those organizations which have very few levels of management, so that there may be only one or two levels in the hierarchy.
The number of levels, that is, whether the organization is tall or flat, directly affects communication within an organization. The effectiveness of communication will depend on how well managed the organization is, and on the extent of horizontal links.
Formalization: The more an organization determines the job specifications of its employees, the more formalized it is. Low formalization in a job means that the employee has a high degree of independence and discretion in the job. In other words, it means a high degree of control over work. Conversely, high formalization means little control or independence, therefore little power.
Centralization: The communication effectiveness of an organization will also depend on the extent of the centralization of decision-making in the company. Organizations with tall structures tend to be highly centralized: all major decisions there require the approval of top management. This means that middle management is unable to make important decisions and must therefore use memos, short reports, and submissions to request a decision.
Thus, there is an undeniable link between the organizational and communication structure of any concern. This is not the place for a detailed analysis of the link between an organization’s structure and its overall efficiency; however, structure does have a major effect on the communication that takes place. Traditional organizations, operating in a more or less stable environment, tend to be more structured and make greater use of organizational charts, protocol, policies, and job descriptions. Modern organizations, operating in a very dynamic environment, may have no organizational charts, job descriptions, or standing plans; they are highly flexible. The structured organization is called mechanistic, and the flexible structure, organic.
Mechanistic structures:
Today, better-informed customers, rapid change, and fierce competition from global competitors demand empowered employees exercising leadership at every level of the organization. This is not possible without a radical restructuring of the traditional sequential model of organizational communication. As mentioned earlier, there have been three pervasive patterns that will no longer work in knowledge-based organizations:
Channels of Communication and Networking. Types of Networks. When we communicate with those above us, below us, or around us, we are establishing communication networks. These may be formal channels or informal channels.
Within the organization, there are usually four types of networks:
Communication Media in Business Communication
Both formal and informal channels of communication may employ four major media of communication.
There are eleven principles of business communication.
People function in society as individuals and in organized groups, such as family, clan, school, community, professional associations, trade unions, etc.
Organization, according to one of the meanings given in the Oxford Dictionary, is an organized body of people; an organized system.
Just like an organism (a living being, an individual animal or plant), it is an individual entity functioning as a unit. Examples: Telikom, Microsoft, Netscape, The National, Pepsi, Coca-Cola, the Government, the military, the air force, the navy, etc.
Just like an organ (a distinct part of an animal or plant body, adapted for a particular function, i.e., digestive organs) in the larger body of human society, every organization carries out a specific function - be it educational, business, government or religious. To make our analogy more vivid, individuals are like single cells in the body of human society, whereas organizations are like organs with their specific functions.
The Behavioral Theory identifies four levels of communication in the human society, or four main types of communication networks:
- Intrapersonal
- Interpersonal
- Group interaction and
- Cultural.
Communication in Business Organizations
Business organizations are established to achieve a specific purpose, such as the production of some goods or services. Effective communication is vital for the coordinated functioning of any organization.
There are the two main contexts in which organizational communication may be viewed: internal and external communication.
Internal communication involves all communication networks within the organization, i.e. between the various levels of the hierarchy, departments, branches, or individuals.
The main internal communication channels include:
- Written - memos, reports, forms, notice boards, house magazines, manuals
- Oral - interviews, consultations, formal and informal meetings, grapevine.
- Telecommunications - telephones, intercoms, private lines, fax, computers, email, etc.
The channels of external communication include the mass media, advertising, letters, company reports, open days, local/community participation, sponsorship, trade fairs and exhibitions, conferences, etc.
Internal communication in all organizations has formal and informal channels of communication.
Levels of Business Communication: There are four levels of communication in organizations:
- intrapersonal (communication with yourself)
- interpersonal (communication to a superior or subordinate)
- one to many (making a speech)
- many to one (a committee making a presentation to company president, etc.)
The major functions of communication in a business organization include communication for
- Information - passing information between people working in the same organization and between the organization and others
- Control - communication (written, oral, or even nonverbal) is also used as part of management control for the planning of operations, evaluating performance, directing and motivating staff.
- Motivation - The difficulty is for the managers to find a balance between control and motivation and efficiency. Too much control may reduce initiative and actually lead to a lower productivity with less response to what the customer wants and more emphasis on what the workers think the management wants
We know how complex the process of communication is between two parties (See Lecture 1). The complexity of internal communication systems and information flow increases with the growth of the administrative and clerical functions and the size of organizations. In a small organization with perhaps only 6 or 7 staff, all in one room, communication is simple and straightforward, with people talking face to face to one another. There is no need to send innumerable memos or use the telephone.
As soon as the organization expands, so does the communication system. More written communication is needed, more specialized information is needed, even the same information will need to be communicated in different ways to different groups.
Advances in telecommunications technology have significantly expanded our options for communicating, but they have not solved the communication problem at work. It has always been difficult to get the right information to the right people at the right time - and it still is. In fact, one can make a persuasive case that the rate of change and the rapid growth of information are making this age-old challenge more difficult than ever.
In view of the large volume and increased complexity of communication within organizations, the need arises to effectively select, control, and direct the flow of vital information.
This is achieved with the help of formal organizational structure.
Organizational Structure & Lines of Communication
Business organizations consist of people who work together to achieve common goals (at least in theory! :). Organizations are the system by which individuals cooperate, so that there can be specialization of functions and skills for greater efficiency. This specialization of functions forms the basis of organizational structure. All organizations, as we know, have formal and informal structure.
The formal structure is deliberately developed to regulate and direct the flow of information and to control other aspects of organizational hierarchy and set-up. In order to select, restrict, direct, and control the flow of communication within the formal organization structure, the traditional organizations employ the sequential model of communication that emphasizes up and down hierarchal communication. Most frequently we designate communication to superiors as upward/vertical communication, messages to subordinates as downward/vertical communication, and communication to those on our level as lateral/horizontal communication. Diagonal communication occurs when there is communication between lower and higher levels of hierarchy, but both in different lines of authority (for example, between senior members of academic staff and junior Bursary officers, etc.). Most traditional organizations also have a policy of communication (protocol) dictating the etiquette (formal standards/rules of correct and polite behavior within the organization) designed to ensure effective communication within the organization.
Informal structures/networks, based on personal relationships, will not appear on any organization chart, but can have as much or more impact on the functioning of the organization as the formal communication system.
For example, here are some of the positive aspects of the informal network:
- It may speed up the communication process: when an employee in one department needs help to complete a task or solve a problem, members of the informal network in other sections can use their authority or power to assist. This avoids the delay of ‘going through the right channels.’
- It may create a conducive working atmosphere, again leading to higher productivity: If the needs and goals of formal management coincide with those of the informal organization, in other words, if staff are well motivated, then the atmosphere of trust between the management and employees will lead to higher productivity.
- It helps to diffuse tensions: Job satisfaction is also related to social environment. The informal network allows employees to ‘let off steam’ with other colleagues, thus diffusing potentially destructive conflicts.
- It provides feedback to the management: If management are sensitive to the ‘grapevine,’ they can obtain information on how employees feel about the organization, the management, and the work.
- It may cause conflict within the formal structure: when the goals of the informal organization differ from those of the formal structure, conflict occurs. If the formal channels of communication are ineffective, rumor and gossip (‘grapevine’) spread like wild fire and may disrupt the work process. Individual perceptions distort information. Rumor is the unsupported or untrue part of the informal communication and is therefore of great disadvantage to the organization.
- The informal organization will tend to resist change: organizational restructuring (downsizing, etc.) that are perceived to threaten the existing structure, will be opposed effectively by a well- formed informal organization.
Classification of Organizational Structures: Despite the wide diversity of organizational structures, we can classify them according to the following criteria:
- The extent of complexity
- The level of formalization
- The degree of centralization.
Complexity: Organizational structures may be tall or flat, depending on the number of levels of management.
Tall structures are typical of large public sector corporations; they are also still found in some large companies. Tall structures are put in place when the management wants to centralize all decision-making and retain control over the whole of the organization.
Flat structures exist in those organizations which have very few levels of management, so that there may be only one or two levels in the hierarchy.
The number of levels, that is, whether the organization is tall or flat, directly affects communication within an organization. The effectiveness of communication will depend on how well managed the organization is, and on the extent of horizontal links.
Formalization: The more an organization determines the job specifications of its employees, the more formalized it is. Low formalization in a job means that the employee has a high degree of independence and discretion in the job. In other words, it means a high degree of control over work. Conversely, high formalization means little control or independence, therefore little power.
Centralization: The communication effectiveness of an organization will also depend on the extent of the centralization of decision-making in the company. Organizations with tall structures tend to be highly centralized: all major decisions there require the approval of top management. This means that middle management is unable to make important decisions and must therefore use memos, short reports, and submissions to request a decision.
Thus, there is an undeniable link between the organizational and communication structure of any concern. This is not the place for a detailed analysis of the link between an organization’s structure and its overall efficiency; however, structure does have a major effect on the communication that takes place. Traditional organizations, operating in a more or less stable environment, tend to be more structured and make greater use of organizational charts, protocol, policies, and job descriptions. Modern organizations, operating in a very dynamic environment, may have no organizational charts, job descriptions, or standing plans; they are highly flexible. The structured organization is called mechanistic, and the flexible structure, organic.
Mechanistic structures:
- are static, rigid, vertically oriented, pyramid shaped
- use rules, policies, procedures
- decision-making is limited to top management
- authority is based on position
- have elaborate control system and
- rigid communication channels.
- goals are well known and long lasting
- there is a stable, reasonably simple environment
- technology is simple and well understood
- work force appreciates routine, structure, and low levels of ambiguity.
- are fluid, dynamic, ever changing
- horizontally oriented
- flat
- decision-making takes place at all levels
- changing authority patterns
- authority based on expertise
- collaboration
- informal routes of communication based on current needs.
- tasks are uncertain
- environment is complex and ever changing
- technology is complex and constantly changing
- workforce is creative and innovative.
Today, better-informed customers, rapid change, and fierce competition from global competitors demand empowered employees exercising leadership at every level of the organization. This is not possible without a radical restructuring of the traditional sequential model of organizational communication. As mentioned earlier, there have been three pervasive patterns that will no longer work in knowledge-based organizations:
- the primary flow of information was vertical - within departmental walls that were often impermeable,
- information was hoarded and used as a source of power over others, and
- people at the top often withheld crucial strategic information from those lower in the organization in the belief they couldn’t handle it.
Channels of Communication and Networking. Types of Networks. When we communicate with those above us, below us, or around us, we are establishing communication networks. These may be formal channels or informal channels.
Within the organization, there are usually four types of networks:
- Wheel: a wheel network exists when there is a supervisor with a number of subordinates reporting directly without consultation or links with each other.
- Chain, in a chain communication network information is passed sequentially to the next employee above or below in the line of authority.
- Circle, the circle is a three level hierarchy with the lowest level of employees communicating with each other and directly with the person on the next level. That level then reports directly to the higher level. Communication also occurs downwards between the levels.
- Star, or the all channel network, is more an ideal than a reality, every member of the organization is able to communicate directly as an equal with every other member. Some committees are examples of all channel (star) networks.
Communication Media in Business Communication
Both formal and informal channels of communication may employ four major media of communication.
- face-to-face communication (formal meetings, interviews, informal contact, the grapevine),
- oral communication (the telephone, the intercom or public address system),
- written communication (letters, memos, reports, forms, notice boards, bulletins, newsletters, organizational manuals, etc.),
- visual communication (charts, films, slides, photos, etc.).
There are eleven principles of business communication.
- Conciseness. Most business people are very busy (time is money!). The wordy letter is usually put aside, for its very wordiness makes comprehension difficult.
- Completeness. Your communication must contain all necessary information. Having to request information that should have been included will probably antagonize the recipient of the communication.
- Courtesy.
- Correctness. Everyone has a tendency to focus on errors. To many people, errors in spelling, price quotations, sentence structure, and the like are a reflection of organizational inefficiency.
- Clarity. All ambiguity should be avoided.
- Logical Organization. It is one of the keys to all effective communication.
- Attractiveness. All business communication should ‘look good’. Appearance is also important in face-to-face communication.
- Natural tone. The tone of business communication should be friendly, natural, and sincere. Hackneyed, archaic, and obsolete words, phrases and expressions should be avoided.
- Tact. Controversial expressions that might antagonize or embarrass the ‘receiver’ should be avoided. At times it is necessary to convey unpleasant ideas, but the choice of words used to accomplish that objective should permit the ‘receiver’ to save face and accept the idea.
- Positive tone. A positive tone almost invariably evokes a positive reaction. In almost every situation, it is more desirable to make a positive statement. On rare occasions you may wish to convey a negative idea or problem. However, you should almost always follow immediately with an offer of a positive solution.
- ‘Receiver’ orientation. An effective communicator must be sensitive to the reactions and anticipated responses of the ‘receiver(s)’.
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