Learning Theories

Learning is an important psychological process determining human behavior. It is a continuous process and it occurs all the time. Learning may be defined as the sum total of behavioral changes resulting from experience at training. The newly acquired knowledge and experience serve as feedback to the individual and provide the basis for future behavior in similar situations.

According to E.R.Hilgard,”Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience is known as learning.”

According to Sanford,” learning as a relatively enduring change in behavior bought about as a consequence of experience.”

Implementing Organizational Policies

A complete strategy to prevent and address human rights issues should include:

1. A plan for preventing, reviewing and removing barriers
2. Anti-harassment and anti-discrimination policies
3. An internal complaints procedure
4. An accommodation policy and procedure
5. An education and training program.

An effective strategy will combine all of these elements. For example, while it is an essential part of any human rights strategy, an education and training program on its own will not remove underlying systemic barriers. On the other hand, without education and training, it will be difficult to ensure organizational support for, and compliance with, human rights policies, programs and procedures.

No strategy will be effective without strong, visible and ongoing commitment from the senior levels of the organization.

Performance Management System and Process

The role of HR in the present scenario has undergone a sea change and its focus is on evolving such functional strategies which enable successful implementation of the major corporate strategies. In a way, HR and corporate strategies function in alignment. Today, HR works towards facilitating and improving the performance of the employees by building a conducive work environment and providing maximum opportunities to the employees for participating in organizational planning and decision making process.

Industrial Relations

Industrial relations is a multidisciplinary field that studies the employment relationship.Industrial relations is increasingly being called employment relations or employee relations because of the importance of non-industrial employment relationships; this move is sometimes seen as further broadening of the human resource management trend. Indeed, some authors now define human resource management as synonymous with employee relations. Other authors see employee relations as dealing only with non-unionized workers, whereas labor relations is seen as dealing with unionized workers. Industrial relations studies examine various employment situations, not just ones with a unionized workforce. However, according to Bruce E. Kaufman "To a large degree, most scholars regard trade unionism, collective bargaining and labor-management relations, and the national labor policy and labor law within which they are embedded, as the core subjects of the field."

Industrial Relations (IR) is the study of the laws, conventions and institutions that regulate 'the workplace'. It is a fundamentally important aspect of our way of life, our culture and our society.

Industrial relations means different things to different people. The following illustration depicts how IR shapes our working life, our society and the national economy.

Concept of Industrial Relations:
The term ‘Industrial Relations’ comprises of two terms: ‘Industry’ and ‘Relations’. “Industry”

refers to “any productive activity in which an individual (or a group of individuals) is (are) engaged”. By “relations” we mean “the relationships that exist within the industry between the employer and his workmen.”.
The term industrial relations explains the relationship between employees and management which stem directly or indirectly from union-employer relationship. 

Definitions:

The term ‘industrial relations’ has been variously defined. J.T. Dunlop defines industrial relations as “the complex interrelations among managers, workers and agencies of the governments”.
According to Dale Yoder “industrial relations is the process of management dealing with one or more unions with a view to negotiate and subsequently administer collective bargaining agreement or labour contract”.

The HR Employee Relations Manager directs the organization's employee relations function. They develop employee relations policies and ensure consistent application of company policies and procedures. In addition, they are responsible for employee dispute resolution procedures, performing internal audits, and taking appropriate action to correct any employee relations issues.

Importance of Industrial Relations:
The healthy industrial relations are key to the progress and success. Their significance may be discussed as under – 

• Uninterrupted production – The most important benefit of industrial relations is that this ensures continuity of production. This means, continuous employment for all from manager to workers. The resources are fully utilized, resulting in the maximum possible production. There is uninterrupted flow of income for all. Smooth running of an industry is of vital importance for several other industries; to other industries if the products are intermediaries or inputs; to exporters if these are export goods; to consumers and workers, if these are goods of mass consumption.
• Reduction in Industrial Disputes – Good industrial relations reduce the industrial disputes. Disputes are reflections of the failure of basic human urges or motivations to secure adequate satisfaction or expression which are fully cured by good industrial relations. Strikes, lockouts, go-slow tactics, gherao and grievances are some of the reflections of industrial unrest which do not spring up in an atmosphere of industrial peace. It helps promoting co-operation and increasing production.
• High morale – Good industrial relations improve the morale of the employees. Employees work with great zeal with the feeling in mind that the interest of employer and employees is one and the same, i.e. to increase production. Every worker feels that he is a co-owner of the gains of industry. The employer in his turn must realize that the gains of industry are not for him along but they should be shared equally and generously with his workers. In other words, complete unity of thought and action is the main achievement of industrial peace. It increases the place of workers in the society and their ego is satisfied. It naturally affects production because mighty co-operative efforts alone can produce great results.
• Mental Revolution – The main object of industrial relation is a complete mental revolution of workers and employees. The industrial peace lies ultimately in a transformed outlook on the part of both. It is the business of leadership in the ranks of workers, employees and Government to work out a new relationship in consonance with a spirit of true democracy. Both should think themselves as partners of the industry and the role of workers in such a partnership should be recognized. On the other hand, workers must recognize employer’s authority. It will naturally have impact on production because they recognize the interest of each other.
• Reduced Wastage – Good industrial relations are maintained on the basis of cooperation and recognition of each other. It will help increase production. Wastage of man, material and machines are reduced to the minimum and thus national interest is protected.

Thus, it is evident that good industrial relations is the basis of higher production with minimum cost and higher profits. It also results in increased efficiency of workers. New and new projects may be introduced for the welfare of the workers and to promote the morale of the people at work. An economy organized for planned production and distribution, aiming at the realization of social justice and welfare of the massage can function effectively only in an atmosphere of industrial peace. If the twin objectives of rapid national development and increased social justice are to be achieved, there must be harmonious relationship between management and labor.

Objectives of Industrial Relations: 
The main objectives of industrial relations system are:-

• To safeguard the interest of labor and management by securing the highest level of mutual understanding and good-will among all those sections in the industry which participate in the process of production.
• To avoid industrial conflict or strife and develop harmonious relations, which are an essential factor in the productivity of workers and the industrial progress of a country.
• To raise productivity to a higher level in an era of full employment by lessening the tendency to high turnover and frequency absenteeism.
• To establish and promote the growth of an industrial democracy based on labor partnership in the sharing of profits and of managerial decisions, so that ban individuals personality may grow its full stature for the benefit of the industry and of the country as well.
• To eliminate or minimize the number of strikes, lockouts and gheraos by providing reasonable wages, improved living and working conditions, said fringe benefits.
• To improve the economic conditions of workers in the existing state of industrial managements and political government.
• Socialization of industries by making the state itself a major employer
• Vesting of a proprietary interest of the workers in the industries in which they are employed. 

Employee Welfare

Employee welfare is a term including various services, benefits and facilities offered to employees by the employers. The welfare measures need not be monetary but in any kind/forms. This includes items such as allowances, housing, transportation, medical insurance and food. Employee welfare also includes monitoring of working conditions, creation of industrial harmony through infrastructure for health, industrial relations and insurance against disease, accident and unemployment for the workers and their families. Through such generous benefits the employer makes life worth living for employees.

Importance of Employee Welfare
As a business, you have to provide various benefits to ensure your employees' welfare. While this may increase your business expense and negatively affect your bottom line, looking after your employees will benefit you in other ways.
Compliance:

As an owner, you are required by law to provide certain benefits for the welfare of your employees. You may have to match the Social Security taxes your employees pay and obtain a worker's compensation insurance policy. If you terminate an employee, you may have to funds to extend his health insurance.

Hiring and Retention:
The benefits an employee receives from his employer for his welfare are often a significant reason why he decides to accept a job offer. As such, providing employee benefits allow you to compete with other businesses to recruit and retain qualify employees. If other employers offer better benefits, good employees may choose to go there.

Employees Motivation:
By providing a plan that's good for employees' welfare, you show them that you value them. This can help make them feel welcome and happy in your company, motivating them to work harder. If your health plan has wellness coverage and preventative care, employees are more likely to stay healthy, cutting down on absenteeism and sick days.

Employees' Well-Being:
For companies that have a large base of employees working under stressful conditions or living away from family, it is important to look at fostering personal happiness and professional growth. Investing in employees pays dividends in terms of higher productivity and greater loyalty

Company Image:
Providing a good employee welfare plan reflects well on your business, building a good company image. It may even earn you some press coverage, giving you free publicity to improve awareness among potential customers. This may boost your sales and increase your profits.

Features of Employee Welfare

• Employee welfare is a comprehensive term including various services, facilities and amenities provided to employees for their betterment.
• Welfare measures are in addition to regular wages and other economic benefits available to employees under legal provisions and collective bargaining.
• The basic purpose of employee welfare is to improve the lot of the working class and thereby make a worker a good employee and a happy citizen.
• Employee welfare is an essential part of social welfare. It involves adjustment of an employee's work life and family life to the community or social life.
• Welfare measures may be both voluntary and statutory.

How to Develop an Effective Employee Welfare Program

• Conduct employee surveys to understand their needs and expectations
• Indentify key areas of building skills and engagement and facilitating trainings for the same
• Propose solutions for personal upkeep, family uplifting and future security
• Create opportunities for greater synergies between the management and employees
• Conduct impact assessments and feedback surveys

Employee Welfare Schemes 
Organizations provide welfare facilities to their employees to keep their motivation levels high. The employee welfare schemes can be classified into two categories viz. statutory and non-statutory welfare schemes. The statutory schemes are those schemes that are compulsory to provide by an organization as compliance to the laws governing employee health and safety. These include provisions provided in industrial acts like Factories Act 1948, Dock Workers Act (safety, health and welfare) 1986, Mines Act 1962. The non-statutory schemes differ from organization to organization and from industry to industry. 

Statutory Welfare Schemes

The statutory welfare schemes include the following provisions:

1. Drinking Water: At all the working places safe hygienic drinking water should be provided.
2. Facilities for sitting: In every organization, especially factories, suitable seating arrangements are to be provided.
3. First aid appliances: First aid appliances are to be provided and should be readily assessable so that in case of any minor accident initial medication can be provided to the needed employee.
4. Latrines and Urinals: A sufficient number of latrines and urinals are to be provided in the office and factory premises and are also to be maintained in a neat and clean condition.
5. Canteen facilities: Cafeteria or canteens are to be provided by the employer so as to provide hygienic and nutritious food to the employees.
6. Spittoons: In every work place, such as ware houses, store places, in the dock area and office premises spittoons are to be provided in convenient places and same are to be maintained in a hygienic condition.
7. Lighting: Proper and sufficient lights are to be provided for employees so that they can work safely during the night shifts.
8. Washing places: Adequate washing places such as bathrooms, wash basins with tap and tap on the stand pipe are provided in the port area in the vicinity of the work places.
9. Changing rooms: Adequate changing rooms are to be provided for workers to change their cloth in the factory area and office premises. Adequate lockers are also provided to the workers to keep their clothes and belongings.
10. Rest rooms: Adequate numbers of restrooms are provided to the workers with provisions of water supply, wash basins, toilets, bathrooms, etc.

Non Statutory Schemes:
Many non-statutory welfare schemes may include the following schemes:

1. Personal Health Care (Regular medical check-ups): Some of the companies provide the facility for extensive health check-up
2. Flexi-time: The main objective of the flextime policy is to provide opportunity to employees to work with flexible working schedules. Flexible work schedules are initiated by employees and approved by management to meet business commitments while supporting employee personal life needs
3. Employee Assistance Programs: Various assistant programs are arranged like external counseling service so that employees or members of their immediate family can get counseling on various matters.
4. Harassment Policy: To protect an employee from harassments of any kind, guidelines are provided for proper action and also for protecting the aggrieved employee.
5. Maternity & Adoption Leave – Employees can avail maternity or adoption leaves. Paternity leave policies have also been introduced by various companies.
6. Medi-claim Insurance Scheme: This insurance scheme provides adequate insurance coverage of employees for expenses related to hospitalization due to illness, disease or injury or pregnancy.
7. Employee Referral Scheme: In several companies employee referral scheme is implemented to encourage employees to refer friends and relatives for employment in the organization.

Compensation and Benefits

Compensation includes topics in regard to wage and/or salary programs and structures, for example, salary ranges for job descriptions, merit-based programs, bonus-based programs, commission-based programs, etc. (Also see the Related Info (including Benefits).)

Compensation is payment to an employee in return for their contribution to the organization, that is, for doing their job. The most common forms of compensation are wages, salaries and tips.

Compensation is usually provided as base pay and/or variable pay. Base pay is based on the role in the organization and the market for the expertise required to conduct that role. Variable pay is based on the performance of the person in that role, for example, for how well that person achieved his or her goals for the year. Incentive plans, for example, bonus plans, are a form of variable pay. (Some people might consider bonuses as a benefit, rather than a form of compensation.) Some programs include a base pay and a variable pay.

Organizations usually associate compensation/pay ranges with job descriptions in the organization. The ranges include the minimum and the maximum amount of money that can be earned per year in that role.

Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to understand the abilities of a person for further growth and development. 
According to Flippo, a prominent personality in the field of Human resources, “performance appraisal is the systematic, periodic and an impartial rating of an employee’s excellence in the matters pertaining to his present job and his potential for a better job.”
In the words ofYoder, “Performance appraisal refers to all formal procedures used in working organizations to evaluate personalities and contributions and potential of group members.” Thus performance appraisal is a formal programme in an organization which is concerned with not only the contributions of the members who form part of the organization, but also aims at spotting the potential of the people.”

Executive Development

Executive development is the whole of activities aimed at developing the skills and competencies of those that (will) have executive positions in organisations. While "executive" and "manager" and "leader" are often used interchangeably, "executive" is commonly used to signify the top 5% to 10% of the organization. Similarly, "development" and "training" and"education" are often used as synonyms, however "development" is generally seen as the more encompassing of the three in terms of activities that build skills and competencies.

While it is typical to find organizations that have dedicated corporate training & development people and processes, it is not always the case that an organization will have a dedicated executive development set of activities. In some organizations (typically large multi-nationals), there is a separate executive development team, in other organizations executive development is handled as one of many activities by the larger corporate training group, and in yet other scenarios there is no executive development activity to speak of.

Training and Development

 Training refers to the imparting of specific skill, abilities and knowledge to  employee ( development of those employees who do not supervise activities of others, operative level)
System and practices get outdated due to new discoveries in technology, including technical, managerial and behavioral aspects. In this context training enhances the knowledge, skills and attitudes of employees to increase efficiency and effectiveness on the prsent job as well as expected future job.
The objective of training is to achieve a change in the behavior of those trained. It is expected that employees apply their newly acquired knowledge & skill on the job in such a way as to aid in the achievement of organizational goal.

Recruitment and Selection Process

One of the significant roles of HRM is to select suitable staff and decide to hire right professionals or employees to fill recruitment needs, and provide training the best employees and, make certain that these selected candidates can give better performance, deal with performance issues and follow the rules to diverse system. Recruitment is of the fundamental job of Human Resource management. Fundamentally, recruitment is the process of attracting, assessing, and hiring employees for companies. Once HRM requirements are understood, the next step of HRM is to employ workers. Recruiting and staffing is a complicated activity in competitive business surroundings. Earlier, HRM employees were dependent on recommendation from existing employees. At present, the major challenge is to fill suitable positions and equal employment opportunity which requires more complicated procedures to distinguish and select potential employees. There is difference in enrolment and selection practices reflecting an organizations strategies and perspective to manage workforce. Talented employees represent the core workforce of organization. Applicants are employed on the basis of their ethical level and skills (Guest, 1989). In many organizations, skill framework have been developed and utilized to recognize the talent and qualities essential from potential employees (Roberts, 1997). Such criteria are important to implement many recruitment and selection procedures to classify and select suitable people.

Recruitment is the process of searching for and obtaining applications so as to build a pool of job seekers from whom the right people for the right jobs may be selected.

Job Analysis

Job analysis is the process of gathering and analyzing information about the content and the human requirements of jobs, as well as, the context in which jobs are performed. This process is used to determine placement of jobs. Under NU Values the decision-making in this area is shared by units and Human Resources. Specific internal approval processes will be determined by the unit's organizational leadership.

Job analysis defines the organization of jobs within a job family. It allows units to identify paths of job progression for employees interested in improving their opportunities for career advancement and increasing compensation.

A relative value is placed on the differing factors described in the Zone Placemnet Matrix. All new and existing positions will be assigned to a job family and zone using the job analysis process. This process is designed to place positions into families and zones based upon assigned duties, qualifications and competencies as measured by the five criteria found in the Zone Placement Matrix.

Job specification
A statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities necessary to perform a job properly. It is a standard of personnel and designates the qualities required for acceptable performance.

Human Resource Planning Process

Human resource planning is a process through which the company anticipates future business and environmental forces. Human resources planning assess the manpower requirement for future period of time. It attempts to provide sufficient manpower required to perform organizational activities. HR planning is a continuous process which starts with identification of HR objectives, move through analysis of manpower resources and ends at appraisal of HR planning. Following are the major steps involved in human resource planning:

1. Assessing Human Resources
The assessment of HR begins with environmental analysis, under which the external (PEST) and internal (objectives, resources and structure) are analyzed to assess the currently available HR inventory level. After the analysis of external and internal forces of the organization, it will be easier for HR manager to find out the internal strengths as well as weakness of the organization in one hand and opportunities and threats on the other. Moreover, it includes an inventory of the workers and skills already available within the organization and a comprehensive job analysis.

2. Demand Forecasting
HR forecasting is the process of estimating demand for and supply of HR in an organization. Demand forecasting is a process of determining future needs for HR in terms of quantity and quality. It is done to meet the future personnel requirements of the organization to achieve the desired level of output. Future human resource need can be estimated with the help of the organization's current human resource situation and analysis of organizational plans an procedures. It will be necessary to perform a year-by-year analysis for every significant level and type.

3. Supply Forecasting
Supply is another side of human resource assessment. It is concerned with the estimation of supply of manpower given the analysis of current resource and future availability of human resource in the organization. It estimates the future sources of HR that are likely to be available from within an outside the organization. Internal source includes promotion, transfer, job enlargement and enrichment, whereas external source includes recruitment of fresh candidates who are capable of performing well in the organization.

4. Matching Demand And Supply
It is another step of human resource planning. It is concerned with bringing the forecast of future demand and supply of HR.The matching process refers to bring demand and supply in an equilibrium position so that shortages and over staffing position will be solved. In case of shortages an organization has to hire more required number of employees. Conversely, in the case of over staffing it has to reduce the level of existing employment. Hence, it is concluded that this matching process gives knowledge about requirements and sources of HR.

Introduction to Human Resource Management

Human resources management (HRM) is a management function concerned with hiring, motivating and maintaining people in an organization. It focuses on people in organizations. Human resource management is designing management systems to ensure that human talent is used effectively and efficiently to accomplish organizational goals.

HRM is the personnel function which is concerned with procurement, development, compensation, integration and maintenance of the personnel of an organization for the purpose of contributing towards the accomplishments of the organization’s objectives. Therefore, personnel management is the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling of the performance of those operative functions (Edward B. Philippo).

According to the Invancevich and Glueck, “HRM is concerned with the most effective use of people to achieve organizational and individual goals. It is the way of managing people at work, so that they give their best to the organization”.

Work Motivation

Definition of motivation

Motivation originally comes from the Latin root word movers, which means "to move". It is derived from the word 'motive'. Motive may be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs our behaviour. It makes us move to act. It is always internal to us and is externalized via behaviour. Motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and directs or channels behaviour goals. It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one's will and promoting or driving it to action.

Motivating

It is an act of stimulating emotion or desire and promoting it to action. It may be positive motivation (i.e., incentive motivation based on reward) or negative motivation or fear motivation (based on force). Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness. Negative motivation is commonly used to achieve desired results.

Meaning of motivation

Motivation is one's willingness to exert efforts towards the accomplishment of his/ her goal. Let us consider a few important definitions on motivation that will help us understand the meaning of motivation in more clear sense.

Group Decision Making Techniques

Good decision making is an essential skill for career success generally and effective leadership particularly. If you can learn to make timely and well-considered decisions, then you can often lead your team to spectacular and well-deserved success. However, if you make poor decisions, your team risks failure and your time as a leader will, most likely, be brutally short.

The techniques in this section help you to make the best decisions possible with the information you have available. These tools help you map out the likely consequences of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors and choose the best course of action to take.

These techniques build on the tools discussed in the section on Problem Solving Tools, in that Decision Making follows on from an understanding of the situation. The section on Creativity Tools will help you to explore what alternatives that are open to you.