Decision Making Model

How to make good decisions If you want to lead effectively, you need to make good decisions. If you can learn to do this in a timely and well- considered way, then you can lead your term to spectacular and well deserved success. However, if you dither or make poor decisions, your team risks failure and your time as a leader will probably be brutally short. The techniques in this section help you to make the best decisions possible with the information you have available. They help you map out the likely consequences of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors, and choose the best courses of action. The section starts with some simple techniques that help you to make decisions where many factors are claiming your attention. It then moves on the explain more powerful techniques, such as use of decision trees, 6 thinking hats and cost/ benefit analysis, which are routinely used in commercial decision making.

Decision making The techniques in the section help you to make the best decisions possible with the available information. With these tools you will be able to map out the likely consequences of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors, and choose the best course of action to take. Selecting the most important change to make Evaluating the relative importance of different options Selecting between good options Choosing between options by projecting likely outcomes Weighing the pros and cons of decision Analyzing the pressures for and against change Looking at a decision from all points of view Seeing whether a change is worth making

Organizing Process

Delegation and decentralization Definitions According to Me Farland “delegation is the primary formal mechanism by which the net work authority relationship is established”. According to Hodge and Johnson “a process whereby a superior divides his total work assignment between himself and subordinate manager or operative personal in order to achieve other operative and management specialization". According to Terry “conferring authority from the executive or organizational unit to another in order to accomplish particular assignment”.

Elements of delegation Assignment of the duties and responsibilities - this work is being done only at the time when a superior has no time to accomplish all the work. The superior automatically assign the work to the subordinates. Delegation of authority - if the work is assigned to any subordinate, there will be a need for to accomplish it. Accountability - accountability means that the subordinate is answerable to his immediate superior. If the subordinate has not accomplished the work then the superior is answerable to the management.

Principles of delegation Delegation to go by results expected - the nature of this duty has equal rank with the extent of delegation of authority. The superior has to know what he expect from the subordinate before delegation of authority. Non delegation of responsibility - a superior can delegate authority but not his responsibility. The superior has to be in touch with the subordinate to know the duties are performed and the authority is exercised properly the ultimate responsibility for the performance of duties remains with the superior. Unity of command - the principle of unity of command insists that a subordinate should be assigned duties only by one superior and he is accountable to the concerned one.

Definition of limitation of authority - A person knows well that an authority alone can delegate the authority properly. There should be in written manuals which help the person to understand the authority in right direction.

Planning

What is Planning Planning is decidingvin advance what is to be done. It involves the selection of objectives, policies and programmes from among alternatives. What should a plan be? A plan should be a realistic view of the expectations. Depending upon the activites, a plan can be long range, intermediate range or short range. It is the framework within which it must operate. For management seeking external support, the plan is the most important document and key to growth. Preparation of a comprehensive plan will not gurantee success, but lack of a sound plan will almost certainly ensure failure. Purpose of Plan Just as no two organizations are alike, so also their plans. It is therefore important to prepare a plan keeping in view the necessities of the enterprise. A plan is an important aspect of business. It serves the following three critical functions: Helps management to clarify, focus, and research their businesses or project's development and prospects. Provides a considered and logical framework within which a business can develop and pursue business strategies over the next three to five years. Offers a benchmark against which actual performance can be measured and reviewed. Importance of the Planning Process A plain can play a vital role in helping to avoid mistakes or recognize hidden oppurtunities. Preparing a satisfactory plan of the organization is essential. The planning process enables management to understand more clearly what they want to achieve, and how and when they can do it. A well-prepared business plan demonstrates that the managers know the business and that they have thought through its development in terms of products, management, finances, and most importantly, markets and competition. Planning helps in forecasting the future, makes the future visible to some extent. It bridges between where we are and where we want to go. Planning is looking ahead.

Management Theory

MANAGEMENT THEORY Introduction
Classical Approach To Management
The history and theory of management are important to managers for various reasons:
They help managers understand current developments and avoid mistakes of the past They foster an understanding and appreciation of current situations and developments and facilitates the prediction of future conditions They help managers organize information and approach problems systematically. Without knowledge of theory, managers would be using guess work, hunches, intuition and hopes which may not be useful in the present complex and dynamic organization.
The practice of management can be traced to the beginning of man.  Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Chinese civilizations all have records indicating the importance of management. (The writings of Sun Tzu on the ‘Art of War’, written 2500 years ago are a lesson on strategic management) In Greece, Socrates the famous philosopher observed that “the management of private affairs such as households is not different from the conduct of public affairs except in magnitude”  The biblical Moses used the Principle of delegation and hierarchy of command to manage the Israelites during the exodus. (Exodus 18: 1-27). Joshua used the management techniques to recruit soldiers for war. The Roman Catholic Church over the centuries has effectively used the principles of division of labor and hierarchy of authority. The Roman empire colonized many parts of the world for many centuries by effectively using basic management ideas such as scalar principle and delegation of authority.  Niccolo Machiavelli in ‘The Prince’ gives relevant ideas on how to develop and use management skills.  He suggests to ‘The Prince’ ideas on – consent of the majority, inspiration of people to greater achievement, offer of rewards and incentives and taking advantage of all opportunities. The above early influences on management, however, do not give much insight into the principles of management as they are not organized and the relationships among various variables are not explained.  The knowledge is based on trial and error and experience rather than organized scientific knowledge. It was only in the late 19th century that large business organizations requiring systematic administration started to emerge.  We shall focus on two early schools of management.
Classical management theory Human  relations neo-classical theory

Introduction to Management

Using Ampersand Sign in Update Statement

update <table_name> set field_name = 'ABC' || chr(38) || 'DEF' where <where clause>


38 is the ASCII code for ampersand (&), and in this form it will be interpreted as a string, nothing else. I tried it and it worked.

PHP Connectivity with MS SQL Server (mssql) commands

<?php
$myServer = "server name";
$myUser = "user name";
$myPass = "password";
$myDB = "database name"; 

//connection to the database
$dbhandle = mssql_connect($myServer, $myUser, $myPass)
  or die("Couldn't connect to SQL Server on $myServer"); 

//select a database to work with
$selected = mssql_select_db($myDB, $dbhandle)
  or die("Couldn't open database $myDB"); 

//declare the SQL statement that will query the database
$query = "SELECT * from table-name";


//execute the SQL query and return records
$result = mssql_query($query);

$numRows = mssql_num_rows($result); 
echo "<h1>" . $numRows . " Row" . ($numRows == 1 ? "" : "s") . " Returned </h1>"; 

//display the results 
echo "<li>" . $row["ItemId"] . $row["ItemName"] . $row["SupplierId"] . "</li>";

}

//close the connection
mssql_close($dbhandle);
?>

Company

Outline: A man is known by the company —  he keeps selection of companions good men —company of wiser men — conclusion.

A man is known by the company he keeps/ just as a tree is known by the fruit it bears. Our associates have great influence on our character. A good and virtuous man will, by the silent influence of his example, make us good, a wicked man will make us wicked like himself. Hundreds of young men are led astray by bad companions. It is very easy to yield to temptations. .

We must choose our companions with very great care. We must shun bad company as poison. In all religions, the company of the virtuous is recommended as a means of spiritual betterment. If we make bad friends, they will spoil our all efforts and bring us disgrace. On the other hand, if someone has good friends, they will bring him honour. It will help him to make progress in life.

Good men will raise us to their level. Men more learned and experienced than ourselves will guide us aright through the difficulties of life. Their example and their teachings will ennoble us, raise our thoughts, place high ideals before us, and encourage us to do right. They would give us solace in times of distress, and confer peace of mind on us. Young men should always' prefer the company of men wiser and better than themselves.

It is a law of nature that we become like those with whom we live, and if we do not sit in the company of men who are better than ourselves, we shall never improve. If we have something good and noble to look up to, we shall imitate it, and if we have a low and vulgar example before us. we shall follow it, and become like - it. The importance of good company for the elevation of character cannot be overrated. „

Company plays a vital role in our life. That is why Islam gives more importance to the company of a scholar that mere prayers. We can aiso touch the heights of glory if we are very careful about our company.

Habits

Outline: Character - qualities effort - work of life - repetition of good - actions - conclusion.

Character is the sum of habits. If these are good, we call the man a man of good character; if bad, we despise him as a bad or a wicked man. Young men should form good habits for habits once formed have a permanent hold on us, and it is not easy to shake them off afterwards. Habit is second nature, therefore good habits should be formed in youth, which may stand us in good stead in the practical struggles of life.

Truthfulness, honesty punctuality, dutifulness. charity, love, kindness, respectfulness, and obedience to parents and elders are the characteristics of noble men, and these should be assiduously cultivated.

Effort is required in the beginning to form a habit, but with patience and perseverance, we succeed in the end. Little children find it difficult to rise early in the morning, attend school, and fix their attention on their lessons, but with repeated efforts, the thing becomes easy. Association with good men and study of good books have great influence in the formation of our character and habits.

Good habits help us in the work of life. An action takes less time and is more easily and satisfactorily performed if we are habituated to it. Certain habits are easy to form, especially bad habits, others require continued effort and frequent repetition.

While we should repeat good actions at regular and proper intervals to make them a pan of our nature, we should with equal care shun bad ones. The best way to get rid of bad habit is not to indulge in them, when the time for their gratifications comes. For instance, if a student is addicted to smoking, is inclined to be lazy, or to tell lies, he should see that when the time comes for him to indulge in that bad habit, he stands firm, resists the temptation and says 'No.' If he denies gratification to his low desires in this way, he will find that no such temptation will come across his path to trouble him.'

Habits can be easily formed up to the age of twenty five, hence young men should take special pains to train themselves in good and righteous habits.

The Influence of Climate on Character

Outline: Introduction- example of Muslims cold countries moist countries Mughals.

Climate has a great influence on character. People living in cold countries are more hardy, active, and enterprising. Those living in hot climates are ease-loving and lazy. In moist climate, people are pale-faced and slow. Of course, where the cold is intense, the people remain inactive, they cannot move about; but temperate countries, especially those situated near the coast, like England, produce energetic and enterprising men. Such a climate is highly conducive to activity. The Esquimaux of Greenland, on the other hand, are mere savages.

Self Respect

Outline: Introduction avoidance from evil not defiles his body the feelings pretension.

A man must respect himself. He should not degrade his body or mind. He is what God has made him. Why should he be ashamed of himself? His duty is to make the most of the powers which he has. Even persons afflicted with any defect or deformity should not hate themselves. A man who despises himself will never rise, and will not command the respect of others. Respect yourself, if you wish to be respected by others.

Self-respect will keep a man away from evil, will not allow him to do anything mean or unworthy, 'Self-respect,' says Smiles, 'is the noblest garment with which a man may clothe himself.' it is the most elevating feeling with which the mind can be inspired. A self-respecting man will not defile his body, nor corrupt his mind. He will neither cringe nor crawl before others, neither fawn nor flatter, but will treat his officers with due respect. He will be courteous and polite to all and sympathetic and kind to his juniors. He will not bully those under him.

To think meanly of one's self is to sink is one's own estimation, and if you think little of yourself, others will think less of you. You cannot rise, if you do not look up. Even the humblest man may be raised by this feeling. Poverty itself will heightened and made bearable by it, and it is really a noble sight to see a poor man holding himself upright, refusing to demean himself by low actions. It is true that persons who think meanly of themselves cannot command the respect of others, but persons who pretend to be what they are not, who are arrogant and presumptuous, bring upon themselves ridicule and hatred.

Self Culture

Outline: Introduction- the highest virtue its cultivation non-dependence conclusion.

Mail has a body mind, and soul, and there are great powers hidden in them, which must be developed. The proper training and development of these powers by one's own diligent effort is self- culture. 'The best part of every man's education." says Sir Walter Scott, 'is that which lie gives to himself.* The education which we receive at school is .more important training which we are to give ourselves on these foundations. That which is imparted to us from outside is not so much ours as that which we acquire by our own application land study.

Self Help

Outline: Introduction the highest virtue its cultivation non-dependence conclusion.

Self-help is the doing of one's own work by oneself and depending entirely upon one's own powers for the performance of any act, without turning to others for help in the matter. Men have been endowed with strength and intelligence by God and it is in the fitness of things that we "should turn these things to good account and utilise them for doing things independently of others. It is a common saying that God helps those who help themselves, and so if we do not exert ourselves we cannot receive any help from God in tiding over our difficulties.

Self-help is one of the highest virtues and upon this depends much of national and individual greatness. The practice of this virtue creates confidence in our own selves and increases our strength, so that, by cultivating this virtue, we can hold our own against all odds. With the increase of mental strength also increases the strength of character, and all these have far-reaching effects. Not only are persons possessing this virtue benefitted them-selves, but they inspire others with confidence, so that the latter place implicit faith in them and turn to them for guidance in times of distress. Next, self-help begets self-respect ^and independence. Unless a person is self-reliant and knows how shameful it. is to look up to others for help in every matter, or the delight of doing things by dint of his own powers, he cannot have any sense of self-respect or the worth of independence.

On account of the importance of this virtue, we should try to cultivate this from our very childhood, for once the habit of relying upon others for doing things which we can do ourselves is formed, it is difficult to shake it off. In all departments, whether in the matter of food and clothing, or in studies, or in play, children should not be given more help than they require and should be made to develop habits of self-help, without which they will never be able to prosper in the world.

Whatever we earn by our own exertions, however little it might be, is sweet. A man who depends for his living upon another cannot derive as much joy as one who secures it by his own labour. Dependence is nothing but a curse and one who has to live upon the charity of others is lost to all sense of self-respect and becomes a cripple,

If the help which he had-so long been getting is with-drawn, the man breaks down and cannot proceed a single step further. The tendency of always relying upon others prevents the latent virtues in a man from displaying themselves and thus a man. who might, if he so willed, have hecome a useful member of society, turns to be a shameless dependant. If the absence of self-help in individuals is bad, the same defect in a whole nation is much more dangerous. Further, the man who is not in the habit of relying upon his own self has to be at the mercy of others who do his work and so he has the misfortune of seeing his work never done to his satisfaction.

Self Control

Outline: Essential element chariot tender plant good character surrounded by temptations.

Self-control is the most essential element of character. Without it, no character is possible. All true growth implies restraint.

In Sanskrit books, the human body is compared to a chariot, the five senses or the horses are not kept under restraint, they will run away with the driver and throw him into a pit. These five senses should, therefore be kept in check. The mind of man is very restless. Unless it is controlled, it will lead him astray. All evil passions, all evil thoughts should be driven out; we should not give a loose rein to our feelings and impulses. We must check and suppress anger, 'count ten," says a proverb.

If a tender plant is not cut and pruned, and protected from all evil influences, it will not grow. Similarly, a young man who is not properly guided, not checked from evil and turned .towards good, and who is allowed to go as he likes, and as his whims lead him, will never develop a good character. It is quite possible that he will mar his life. In future he may get into trouble. That is why, it is very important to have self-control.

Man is surrounded by temptations, and if he has not disciplined himself by patient self-control, he is sure to fall an easy victim to them. Self-control is the only, means of developing and strengthening character. It requires practice, and a young man who neglects this important duty will form loose habits, and will never grow strong and good.

The pages from the history show that the people who had self-control, made their marks and got their aims. For true progress, it is important to have self-control.

Self Sacrifice

Outline: The nobles trait     law of universe-example of seed  in every religion       other's benefit            four kinds of men.

Self-sacrifice is the noblest trait in human character. Giving up of one's own interests for the sake of others exalts man. Parents sacrifice their comforts for the sake of their children, soldiers sacrifice themselves for their country, patriots and reformers sacrifice themselves for freedom and truth. Society is held together only by means of sacrifice. If each member of society were to have his own way. regardless of the comforts and interest of others, there would be utter chaos and endless struggle which would make peace and progress impossible.

Sacrifice is the great law of the universe. One thing is sacrificed for the other, and this other sacrifices itself in its own turn for something else, and thus Nature carries on its work. Sacrifice is the price which must be paid for all progress.

The seed is "sown in the ground, but unless it loses itself, the crop will not grow. From the dead seed grow hundreds of grains, and similarly from one act of sacrifice spring peace, happiness, and plenty. Martyrs suffer for religion and truth, and their blood saves mankind from error.

Sacrifice is enjoined in every religion as an act of great merit, but it has now degenerated into the sacrifice of animals. The real object of sacrifice was to teach men to give up the best things they loved on earth for the sake of God and their fellowman, and instances are on record where noble men have not hesitated to part with everything dear to them wealth, children, and even their own lives for what they thought to be higher objects. Lily, a poor nurse, saved the life of her infant master. (onlinetaleem.blogspot.com) Arnold, son of Walter, by sacrificing that of her own son. Wister sacrificed all he had for truth. The Christians believe that Jesus Christ sacrificed himself for mankind.

A charitable man sacrifices his wealth for the benefit of others, and a gentleman sacrifices his own interests for others. A good man will always do a good turn to his neighboured. Really by helping others we help ourselves.

There are four kinds of men. says a Sanskrit poet:       the noblest are those who sacrifice their own interests for others. Next come those who will serve others only when their own interests do not clash with theirs. The third class are those who injure others for their own selfish ends, but the meanest are those who would inure others, though they themselves gain nothing by it. It is very mean to injure others for our own benefit. There are numerous instances in history, where servants have sacrificed themselves for their masters. Blessed are those who have sacrifices themselves to make the whole world free and happy.