Types of Managerial Communication

Managerial communication refers to interaction among managers and their subordinates within an organization.
It is essential for managers to communicate with their team members and vice a versa to ensure maximum productivity and peace at workplace.

Communication generally takes place as:

• Downward communication - Flow of information from managers to employees
• Upward Communication - Flow of information from employees to managers

Importance of Managerial Communication

Before understanding the importance of managerial communication at workplace let us first go through a real life situation.
Tim and Jack both worked with an organization of repute. Tim represented the marketing vertical while Jack was heading the advertising department. Tim and Jack preferred doing things on their own. The two managers hardly interacted with each other and never really bothered to discuss things and reach to better conclusions. The organization lost an important deal due to lack of communication between the two teams. Such is the importance of communication within the organization.

Introduction to Managerial Communication

Why do individuals need to communicate with each other ?
Information if not shared is of no use. Communication plays a pivotal role in information sharing. Individuals working together in the same organization need to speak to each other to keep themselves abreast with the latest developments in the organization.
It is practically not possible for an individual to do everything on his own. He needs a medium which helps him discuss various ideas and evaluate pros and cons of proposed strategies with people around. Here comes the role of communication.

What is Managerial Communication ?
Managerial communication is a function which helps managers communicate with each other as well as with employees within the organization.
Communication helps in the transfer of information from one party also called the sender to the other party called the receiver.

Role of the Finance Function

The Finance Function in Corporates
We often read about how corporates are doing financially with reference to their profits, asset values, debt, equity, and other measures. These measures are indicative of how well the corporate is doing financially. The next time you read about these measures, do think about the people who enable these performance indicators and these are the finance and treasury functions of the corporates.
Before we proceed further, we would like to remind you that the Treasury or the Finance function does not actualize the broader financial performance which is determined by the various strategic, operational, and financial management. Rather, the role of the finance function is to record, and keeps track of the various matters related to financial management in corporates.

The finance and the treasury functions are also responsible for tax calculations, social security payments, payroll, managing the receivables and the payable, and in recent years, the emergence of the treasury function has meant that they also deal with foreign exchange management

Financial Intermediaries

Introduction
A financial intermediary is a firm or an institution that acts an intermediary between a provider of service and the consumer. It is the institution or individual that is in between two or more parties in a financial context. In theoretical terms, a financial intermediary channels savings into investments. Financial intermediaries exist for profit in the financial system and sometimes there is a need to regulate the activities of the same. Also, recent trends suggest that financial intermediaries role in savings and investment functions can be used for an efficient market system or like the sub-prime crisis shows, they can be a cause for concern as well.

Financial Intermediation
Financial intermediaries work in the savings/investment cycle of an economy by serving as conduits to finance between the borrowers and the lenders. In the financial system, intermediaries like banks and insurance companies have a huge role to play given that it has been estimated that a major proportion of every dollar financed externally has been done by the banks. Financial intermediaries are an important source of external funding for corporates. Unlike the capital markets where investors contract directly with the corporates creating marketable securities, financial intermediaries borrow from lenders or consumers and lend to the companies that need investment.

Financial Management Techniques

Whether you’re a business or an individual, you have to find a way to manage your finances now and in the future. The cost of everything continues to increase and there’s no sign that this trend of price increases will stop anytime soon. As a result, all entities have to develop a financial management system to ensure their stability for many years to come.

This system has to provide the businesses in question with enough flexibility for them to continue to grow and pay for their necessary expenses. It also has to be stringent enough to allow for money to be put away in the event of future catastrophes.

In the case of a business, all expenses have to be prioritized in the interest of spending money on the right things.

Profit Maximization Criticisms

Many economists have argued that profit maximization has brought about many disparities among consumers and manufacturers. In case of perfect competition it may appear as a legitimate and a reward for efforts but in case of imperfect competition a firm’s prime objective should not be profit maximization. In olden times when there was not too much of competition selling and manufacturing goods were primarily for mutual benefit. Manufacturers didn’t produce to earn profits rather produced for mutual benefit and social welfare. The aim of the single producer was to retain his position in the market and sustain growth, thereby earning some profit which would help him in maintaining his position. On the other hand in today’s time the production system is dominant by two tier system of ownership and management. Ownership aims at maximizing profit and management aims at managing the system of production thereby indirectly increasing the income of the business.
These services are used by customers who in turn are forced to pay a higher price due to formation of cartels and monopoly. Not only have the customers suffered but also the employees. Employees are forced to work more than their capacity. they is made to pay in extra hours so that production can increase.

Financial Goal - Profit vs Wealth

Every firm has a predefined goal or an objective. Therefore the most important goal of a financial manager is to increase the owner’s economic welfare. Here economics welfare may refer to maximization of profit or maximization of shareholders wealth. Therefore Shareholders wealth maximization (SWM) plays a very crucial role as far as financial goals of a firm are concerned.

Profit is the remuneration paid to the entrepreneur after deduction of all expenses. Maximization of profit can be defined as maximizing the income of the firm and minimizing the expenditure. The main responsibility of a firm is to carry out business by manufacturing goods and services and selling them in the open market. The mechanism of demand and supply in an open market determine the price of a commodity or a service. A firm can only make profit if it produces a good or delivers a service at a lower cost than what is prevailing in the market. The margin between these two prices would only increase if the firm strives to produce these goods more efficiently and at a lower price without compromising on the quality.

The demand and supply mechanism plays a very important role in determining the price of a commodity. A commodity which has a greater demand commands a higher price and hence may result in greater profits. Competition among other suppliers also effect profits. Manufacturers tends to move towards production of those goods which guarantee higher profits. Hence there comes a time when equilibrium is reached and profits are saturated.

According to Adam Smith - business man in order to fulfill their profit motive in turn benefits the society as well. It is seen that when a firm tends to increase profit it eventually makes use of its resources in a more effective manner. Profit is regarded as a parameter to measure firm’s productivity and efficiency.

Capitalization in Finance

Capitalization comprises of share capital, debentures, loans, free reserves,etc. Capitalization represents permanent investment in companies excluding long-term loans. Capitalization can be distinguished from capital structure. Capital structure is a broad term and it deals with qualitative aspect of finance. While capitalization is a narrow term and it deals with the quantitative aspect.
Capitalization is generally found to be of following types-

• Normal
• Over
• Under

Overcapitalization
Overcapitalization is a situation in which actual profits of a company are not sufficient enough to pay interest on debentures, on loans and pay dividends on shares over a period of time. This situation arises when the company raises more capital than required. A part of capital always remains idle. With a result, the rate of return shows a declining trend. The causes can be-

Capital Structure

Meaning of Capital Structure
Capital Structure is referred to as the ratio of different kinds of securities raised by a firm as long-term finance. The capital structure involves two decisions-

• Type of securities to be issued are equity shares, preference shares and long term borrowings (Debentures).
• Relative ratio of securities can be determined by process of capital gearing. On this basis, the companies are divided into two-
• Highly geared companies - Those companies whose proportion of equity capitalization is small.
• Low geared companies - Those companies whose equity capital dominates total capitalization.

For instance - There are two companies A and B. Total capitalization amounts to be USD 200,000 in each case. The ratio of equity capital to total capitalization in company A is USD 50,000, while in company B, ratio of equity capital is USD 150,000 to total capitalization, i.e, in Company A, proportion is 25% and in company B, proportion is 75%. In such cases, company A is considered to be a highly geared company and company B is low geared company.

Role of a Financial Manager

Overview
Financial managers perform data analysis and advise senior managers on profit-maximizing ideas. Financial managers are responsible for the financial health of an organization. They produce financial reports, direct investment activities, and develop strategies and plans for the long-term financial goals of their organization. Financial managers typically:

• Prepare financial statements, business activity reports, and forecasts,
• Monitor financial details to ensure that legal requirements are met,
• Supervise employees who do financial reporting and budgeting,
• Review company financial reports and seek ways to reduce costs,
• Analyze market trends to find opportunities for expansion or for acquiring other companies,
• Help management make financial decisions.

The role of the financial manager, particularly in business, is changing in response to technological advances that have significantly reduced the amount of time it takes to produce financial reports. Financial managers' main responsibility used to be monitoring a company's finances, but they now do more data analysis and advise senior managers on ideas to maximize profits. They often work on teams, acting as business advisors to top executives.

Finance Functions

The following explanation will help in understanding each finance function in detail

Investment Decision
One of the most important finance functions is to intelligently allocate capital to long term assets. This activity is also known as capital budgeting. It is important to allocate capital in those long term assets so as to get maximum yield in future. Following are the two aspects of investment decision

1. Evaluation of new investment in terms of profitability
2. Comparison of cut off rate against new investment and prevailing investment.

Since the future is uncertain therefore there are difficulties in calculation of expected return. Along with uncertainty comes the risk factor which has to be taken into consideration. This risk factor plays a very significant role in calculating the expected return of the prospective investment. Therefore while considering investment proposal it is important to take into consideration both expected return and the risk involved.

Investment decision not only involves allocating capital to long term assets but also involves decisions of using funds which are obtained by selling those assets which become less profitable and less productive. It wise decisions to decompose depreciated assets which are not adding value and utilize those funds in securing other beneficial assets. An opportunity cost of capital needs to be calculating while dissolving such assets. The correct cut off rate is calculated by using this opportunity cost of the required rate of return (RRR)

Financial Decision
Financial decision is yet another important function which a financial manger must perform. It is important to make wise decisions about when, where and how should a business acquire funds. Funds can be acquired through many ways and channels. Broadly speaking a correct ratio of an equity and debt has to be maintained. This mix of equity capital and debt is known as a firm’s capital structure.

A firm tends to benefit most when the market value of a company’s share maximizes this not only is a sign of growth for the firm but also maximizes shareholders wealth. On the other hand the use of debt affects the risk and return of a shareholder. It is more risky though it may increase the return on equity funds.

A sound financial structure is said to be one which aims at maximizing shareholders return with minimum risk. In such a scenario the market value of the firm will maximize and hence an optimum capital structure would be achieved. Other than equity and debt there are several other tools which are used in deciding a firm capital structure.

Dividend Decision
Earning profit or a positive return is a common aim of all the businesses. But the key function a financial manger performs in case of profitability is to decide whether to distribute all the profits to the shareholder or retain all the profits or distribute part of the profits to the shareholder and retain the other half in the business.

It’s the financial manager’s responsibility to decide a optimum dividend policy which maximizes the market value of the firm. Hence an optimum dividend payout ratio is calculated. It is a common practice to pay regular dividends in case of profitability Another way is to issue bonus shares to existing shareholders.

Liquidity Decision
It is very important to maintain a liquidity position of a firm to avoid insolvency. Firm’s profitability, liquidity and risk all are associated with the investment in current assets. In order to maintain a tradeoff between profitability and liquidity it is important to invest sufficient funds in current assets. But since current assets do not earn anything for business therefore a proper calculation must be done before investing in current assets.

Current assets should properly be valued and disposed of from time to time once they become non profitable. Currents assets must be used in times of liquidity problems and times of insolvency.

The Roll of Finance Functions in Organizational Process
The Finance Function and the Project Office
Contemporary organizations need to practice cost control if they are to survive the recessionary times. Given the fact that many top tier companies are currently mired in low growth and less activity situations, it is imperative that they control their costs as much as possible. This can happen only when the finance function in these companies is diligent and has a hawk eye towards the costs being incurred. Apart from this, companies also have to introduce efficiencies in the way their processes operate and this is another role for the finance function in modern day organizations.

There must be synergies between the various processes and this is where the finance function can play a critical role. Lest one thinks that the finance function, which is essentially a support function, has to do this all by themselves, it is useful to note that, many contemporary organizations have dedicated project office teams for each division, which perform this function.

In other words, whereas the finance function oversees the organizational processes at a macro level, the project office teams indulge in the same at the micro level. This is the reason why finance and project budgeting and cost control have assumed significance because after all, companies exist to make profits and finance is the lifeblood that determines whether organizations are profitable or failures.

The Pension Fund Management and Tax Activities of the Finance Function
The next role of the finance function is in payroll, claims processing, and acting as the repository of pension schemes and gratuity. If the US follow the 401(k) rule and the finance function manages the defined benefit and defined contribution schemes, in India it is the EPF or the Employee Provident Funds that are managed by the finance function. Of course, only large organizations have dedicated EPF trusts to take care of these aspects and the norm in most other organizations is to act as facilitators for the EPF scheme with the local or regional PF (Provident Fund) commissioner.

The third aspect of the role of the finance function is to manage the taxes and their collection at source from the employees. Whereas in the US, TDS or Tax Deduction at Source works differently from other countries, in India and much of the Western world, it is mandatory for organizations to deduct tax at source from the employees commensurate with their pay and benefits.

The finance function also has to coordinate with the tax authorities and hand out the annual tax statements that form the basis of the employee’s tax returns. Often, this is a sensitive and critical process since the tax rules mandate very strict principles for generating the tax statements.

Payroll, Claims Processing, and Automation
We have discussed the pension fund management and the tax deduction. The other role of the finance function is to process payroll and associated benefits in time and in tune with the regulatory requirements.

Claims made by the employees with respect to medical, and transport allowances have to be processed by the finance function. Often, many organizations automate this routine activity wherein the use of ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) software and financial workflow automation software make the job and the task of claims processing easier. Having said that, it must be remembered that the finance function has to do its due diligence on the claims being submitted to ensure that bogus claims and suspicious activities are found out and stopped. This is the reason why many organizations have experienced chartered accountants and financial professionals in charge of the finance function so that these aspects can be managed professionally and in a trustworthy manner.


The key aspect here is that the finance function must be headed by persons of high integrity and trust that the management reposes in them must not be misused. In conclusion, the finance function though a non-core process in many organizations has come to occupy a place of prominence because of these aspects.

Financial Planning and Resources

Financial Planning is the process of estimating the capital required and determining it’s competition. It is the process of framing financial policies in relation to procurement, investment and administration of funds of an enterprise.

Objectives of Financial Planning
Financial Planning has got many objectives to look forward to:

1. Determining capital requirements- This will depend upon factors like cost of current and fixed assets, promotional expenses and long- range planning. Capital requirements have to be looked with both aspects: short- term and long- term requirements.
2. Determining capital structure- The capital structure is the composition of capital, i.e., the relative kind and proportion of capital required in the business. This includes decisions of debt- equity ratio- both short-term and long- term.
3. Framing financial policies with regards to cash control, lending, borrowings, etc.
4. A finance manager ensures that the scarce financial resources are maximally utilized in the best possible manner at least cost in order to get maximum returns on investment.
   

Importance of Financial Planning
Financial Planning is process of framing objectives, policies, procedures, programmes and budgets regarding the financial activities of a concern. This ensures effective and adequate financial and investment policies. The importance can be outlined as-

1. Adequate funds have to be ensured.
2. Financial Planning helps in ensuring a reasonable balance between outflow and inflow of funds so that stability is maintained.
3. Financial Planning ensures that the suppliers of funds are easily investing in companies which exercise financial planning.
4. Financial Planning helps in making growth and expansion programmes which helps in long-run survival of the company.
5. Financial Planning reduces uncertainties with regards to changing market trends which can be faced easily through enough funds.
6. Financial Planning helps in reducing the uncertainties which can be a hindrance to growth of the company. This helps in ensuring stability an d profitability in concern.

Characteristics of a Financial planning

The success of a business very much depends upon a financial plan (capital plan) based upon certain basic principles of corporation finance.

The essential characteristics of an ideal capital plan ae as follows:-

1. Simplicity:  The capital plan of a company should be as simple as possible. By 'simplicity' we mean that the plan should be easily understandable to all and it should be free from complications, and/or suspicion-arising statements. At the time of formulating capital structure of a company or issuing various securities to the public, it should be borne in mind that there would be no confusion in the mind of investors about their nature and profitability. 
2. Foresight: The planner should always keep in mind not only the needs of 'today' but also the needs of 'tomorrow' so that a sound capital structure (financial plan) may be formed. Capital requirements of a company can be estimated by the scope of operations and it must be planned in such a way that needs for capital may be predicted as accurately as possible. Although, it is difficult to predict the demand of the product yet it cannot b an excuse for the promoters to use foresight to the best advantage in building the capital structure of the company. 
3. Flexibility: The capital structure of a company must be flexible enough to meet the capital requirements of the company. The financial plan should be chalked out in such a way that both increase and decrease in capital may be feasible. The company may require additional capital for financing scheme of modernisation, automation, betterment of employees etc. It is not difficult to increase the capital. It may be done by issuing fresh shares or debentures to the public or raising loans from special financial institutions, but reduction of capital is really a ticklish problem and needs statesman like dexterity. 
4. Intensive use: Effective use of capital is as much necessary as its procurement. Every resource should be used properly for the prosperity of the enterprise. Wasteful use of capital is as bad as inadequate capital. There must be 'fair capitalisation' i.e., company must procure as much capital as requires nothing more and nothing less. Over-capitalisation and under capitalisation are both danger signals. Hence, there should neither be surplus nor deficit capital but procurement of adequate capital should be aimed at and every effort be made to make best use of it. 
5. Liquidity: Liquidity means that a reasonable amount of current assets must be kept in the form of liquid cash so that business operations may be carried on smoothly without any shock to term due to shortage of funds. This cash ratio to current ratio to current assets depends upon a number of factors, e.g., the nature and size of the business, credit standing, goodwill and money market conditions etc. 
6. Economy: The cost of capital procurement should always be kept in mind while formulating the financial plan. It should be the minimum possible. Dividend or interests to be paid to share holder (ordinary and preference) should not be a burden

Introduction to Financial Management

Meaning of Financial Management
Financial Management means planning, organizing, directing and controlling the financial activities such as procurement and utilization of funds of the enterprise. It means applying general management principles to financial resources of the enterprise.

Scope/Elements
Investment decisions includes investment in fixed assets (called as capital budgeting). Investment in current assets are also a part of investment decisions called as working capital decisions.
Financial decisions - They relate to the raising of finance from various resources which will depend upon decision on type of source, period of financing, cost of financing and the returns thereby.
Dividend decision - The finance manager has to take decision with regards to the net profit distribution. Net profits are generally divided into two:

1. Dividend for shareholders- Dividend and the rate of it has to be decided.
2. Retained profits- Amount of retained profits has to be finalized which will depend upon expansion and diversification plans of the enterprise.

Objectives of Financial Management
The financial management is generally concerned with procurement, allocation and control of financial resources of a concern. The objectives can be-

1. To ensure regular and adequate supply of funds to the concern.
2. To ensure adequate returns to the shareholders which will depend upon the earning capacity, market price of the share, expectations of the shareholders.
3. To ensure optimum funds utilization. Once the funds are procured, they should be utilized in maximum possible way at least cost.
4. To ensure safety on investment, i.e, funds should be invested in safe ventures so that adequate rate of return can be achieved.
5. To plan a sound capital structure-There should be sound and fair composition of capital so that a balance is maintained between debt and equity capital.

Functions of Financial Management

1. Estimation of capital requirements: A finance manager has to make estimation with regards to capital requirements of the company. This will depend upon expected costs and profits and future programmes and policies of a concern. Estimations have to be made in an adequate manner which increases earning capacity of enterprise.
2. Determination of capital composition: Once the estimation have been made, the capital structure have to be decided. This involves short- term and long- term debt equity analysis. This will depend upon the proportion of equity capital a company is possessing and additional funds which have to be raised from outside parties.
3. Choice of sources of funds: For additional funds to be procured, a company has many choices like-
   1. Issue of shares and debentures
   2. Loans to be taken from banks and financial institutions
   3. Public deposits to be drawn like in form of bonds.
   Choice of factor will depend on relative merits and demerits of each source and period of financing.
4. Investment of funds: The finance manager has to decide to allocate funds into profitable ventures so that there is safety on investment and regular returns is possible.
5. Disposal of surplus: The net profits decision have to be made by the finance manager. This can be done in two ways:
   1. Dividend declaration - It includes identifying the rate of dividends and other benefits like bonus.
   2. Retained profits - The volume has to be decided which will depend upon expansional, innovational, diversification plans of the company.
6. Management of cash: Finance manager has to make decisions with regards to cash management. Cash is required for many purposes like payment of wages and salaries, payment of electricity and water bills, payment to creditors, meeting current liabilities, maintenance of enough stock, purchase of raw materials, etc.
7. Financial controls: The finance manager has not only to plan, procure and utilize the funds but he also has to exercise control over finances. This can be done through many techniques like ratio analysis, financial forecasting, cost and profit control, etc.

History of Quality Evolution

The Evolution of Quality

Over the past few decades there have been several leaders who have been instrumental to developing the concept of quality as understood today.

Joseph M Juran is one of these key figures. Using eastern philosophies learnt in Japan, he advocated the idea that quality related to "fitness for use".

Juran believed that this definition of quality fell into two key areas. Higher quality products had a greater number of features which fit with the requirements of the consumer and also had fewer defects.

His book "Managerial Breakthrough" published in the 1960s was the first to offer a step-by-step sequence for improvement, while the Juran Trilogy, published in the 1980s, produced the three definitive quality management processes; quality planning, quality improvement and quality control.